Graeco-Roman Culture Through the Lens of Homer & Virgil

B.M. Scott

29 August 2025

Graeco-Roman Culture Through the Lens of Homer & Virgil

The Homeric and Virgilian epics, embodied in the Odyssey and the Aeneid respectively, stand as monumental pillars of Western literature. Each offers a profound exploration of its respective cultural ethos. Although separated by centuries and civilizations, these masterworks provide an unparalleled window into the moral, social, and spiritual domains of ancient Greece and Rome. Through their intricate narratives and multifaceted characters, they illustrate the virtues, values, and philosophical foundations that shaped two of the most influential societies in human history.

In examining the Odyssey, one discerns a rich tapestry of Greek virtues woven throughout the narrative. The concept of oikos (οἶκος), representing the household and family unit, forms the bedrock of Greek society. Oikos encompasses not only the immediate family but also the broader household, including slaves and property. This concept is central to the epic. Odysseus strives to return to his oikos in Ithaca, while Penelope and Telemachus labor to preserve it in his absence. Xenia (ξενία), the sacred custom of hospitality, emerges as a central virtue of Greek social and religious life. This principle establishes a reciprocal relationship between hosts and guests - reflecting the Greek belief that the gods might walk among mortals in disguise. The Phaeacians’ treatment of Odysseus exemplifies the ideal of xenia. In stark contrast, the suitors’ abuse of Penelope’s hospitality constitutes a grave violation. To be accused of inhospitality was tantamount to blasphemy, an affront not merely to mortals, but to the gods themselves. Arete (ἀρετή) - meaning excellence and virtue - manifests in the heroic qualities of Odysseus and others. In the Homeric context, arete frequently refers to strength, courage, and martial prowess, yet it extends to moral and intellectual virtue as well. Odysseus demonstrates arete through his cunning, resourcefulness, and unfailing perseverance. The Odyssey further articulates the principle of allegiance within the framework of ethos. Homer continuously underscores the importance of loyalty and reliability, not only within marriage and family, but as the framework for all social relations, including dealings with the divine hierarchy. This intricate conceptualization of duty forms the backdrop to Odysseus’s wanderings - illustrating the Greek conception of virtue as being profoundly bound to one’s role and duty within society.

Conversely, Virgil’s Aeneid illustrates the central Roman values of pietas (duty), fides (faith), and virtus (valor). In the Roman worldview, such virtues are not inherent but acquired through conscious action and steadfast adherence to duty. Pietas remains fundamental to Aeneas’s character, as evidenced by his unwavering commitment both to his divine mission and to his father. Roman religion, organized around the notion of pax deorum (peace of the gods), reflects a markedly structured and formal relationship between mortals and the divine, in contrast to the more fluid Greek approach. Roman observance was highly orthopraxic, emphasizing correct practice to maintain favor with the gods. A salient contrast emerges in the treatment of hospitality. Greek xenia prescribed generosity to all guests, whereas Roman hospitium - as articulated in the Aeneid - manifested greater caution. Guests were potential threats until proven otherwise, which reveals the pragmatic sensibility of Roman society. Dido’s questioning of Ilioneus and his company prior to extending hospitality serves as an instructive example of this Roman practice.

While both epics foreground the theme of faithfulness and devotion, these values find divergent expression. In the Odyssey, Penelope’s steadfast loyalty and Odysseus’s relentless quest to return home embody Greek ideals of fidelity. In the Aeneid, Aeneas’s devotion to his mission, often at great personal cost, underscores the Roman understanding of pietas. This is movingly conveyed in Aeneas’s words to his father:

“Did you presume, my father,
That I could force myself away and depart from you?
Unbelievable; how could a father say it?
Now if it pleases the powers above that nothing
Stand of this great city; if your heart
Is set on adding your own death and ours
To that of Troy, the door’s wide open for it” (Aeneid II.857–863).

This passage not only demonstrates Aeneas’s filial piety but also the Roman emphasis on duty and sacrifice for the greater good. The role of the divine presents a fascinating contrast. In the Odyssey, the gods are capricious and interventionist. Athena’s continual support for Odysseus exemplifies the ever-present interaction between mortal and divine. The Greek religious imagination envisioned a world wherein constant negotiation with the gods was required. Conversely, the Roman deities, as depicted in the Aeneid, embody a more structured and reciprocal arrangement. The concept of pax deorum underpins this mutually beneficial pact between men and gods - specifically concerning the fate of the Roman state. The heroic ideals embodied by Odysseus and Aeneas thus encapsulate the distinctive social values of their respective cultures. Odysseus is the very image of metis (μῆτις, cunning intelligence) and polymechanos (πολυμήχανος, resourceful) - traits that the Greeks most admired. Greek heroism prizes wit and adaptability as much as brute force. Aeneas, in contrast, exemplifies Roman fortitudo (strength), pietas, and officium (duty). His actions are guided by an overriding sense of obligation, often at the expense of his own desires. Hubris serves as a cautionary theme in the Odyssey, warning against excessive pride and defiance. Odysseus’s encounters with the Cicones and Polyphemus vividly attest to the perils of overweening conceit. In the Aeneid, Roman opposition to hubris is delineated through a consistent emphasis on piousness; Aeneas repeatedly subordinates his own will to that of the gods. Homer’s Odyssey conversely offers invaluable insight into the social, political, and religious structures of ancient Greece, examining themes of inclusiveness, hospitality, generosity, faithfulness, and the manifestation of the divine—always with an anthropomorphic sensibility regarding honor and heroism. By contrast and by parallel, Virgil’s Aeneid reflects Roman pride, familial loyalty, respect for other cultures, and a devotion to the gods transcending ethnic boundaries.

In conclusion, the Odyssey and the Aeneid serve as eternal windows peering into the moral, social, and religious landscapes of life in ancient Greece and Rome. Through vibrant narratives and complex characters, these epics continue to impart profound insight into virtue, heroism, and the perennial tension between individual longing and collective duty. Their legacy endures as a testament to the universal themes they interrogate, and to the abiding questions they pose about the human condition and the relationship between mortals and the divine. The contrasts between Greek and Roman ideals, made manifest in these works, provide a rich tapestry for understanding the underpinnings of Western civilization.

Invitation for Reflection

- In what ways do the virtues and values depicted in the Odyssey and the Aeneid resonate with or challenge modern notions of heroism, loyalty, and duty?

- How do the contrasting Greek and Roman attitudes toward the household, hospitality, and the divine inform your understanding of cultural identity and community?

- Can the struggles of Odysseus and Aeneas, as they balance individual desire and collective obligation shed light on challenges faced in contemporary life?

- Which epic, character, or virtue speaks most profoundly to you, and why?

- As these ancient works continue to shape Western thought, how might their lessons be applied to the dilemmas and aspirations of our own age?

Further Reading

Fagles, Robert, translator. The Odyssey. By Homer,

Penguin Classics, 1996.

Fitzgerald, Robert, translator. The Aeneid. By Virgil,

Vintage Classics, 1983.

Knox, Bernard. The Oldest Dead White Men and Other Reflections on the Classics.

W.W. Norton, 1993.

Lamberton, Robert. Homer’s Ancient Readers: The Reception of the Homeric Poems in Antiquity.

Princeton UP, 1992.

Morgan, Llewelyn. Virgil: Aeneid Book VI.

Bloomsbury Academic, 2020.

Powell, Anton. Virgil the Partisan: A Study in the Re-invention of the Roman Epic.

Classical Press of Wales, 2008.

Schein, Seth L. Reading the Odyssey: Selected Interpretive Essays.

Princeton UP, 1996.

Williams, Gordon. Technique and Tradition in Virgil’s Aeneid.

Yale UP, 1986.

Zanker, Paul. The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus.

University of Michigan Press, 1990.